§ 1.	Introduction: Coming to terms with the issue
§ 2.	The continuing history of invasions: What they are, the damage they do, and where they come from
	§ 2.1.	Exotic, ANS, NIS, or what?
	§ 2.2.	Bad things in the water
			The sea lamprey
			The zebra mussel
			The ruffe
			Other invaders
	§ 2.3.	Dollars and damage
	§ 2.4.	Changing pathways for invasion over time
			Canals
			Intentional and "Unintentional" and Releases
			Ballast water
	§ 2.5.	Future invasions
§ 3.	The shipping industry and ballast water: Metric tonnes, dollars, and things getting through the cracks
	§ 3.1.	The global business of shipping
	§ 3.2.	Ships and the water they carry: A quick taxonomy of ship species
			Bulkers, tankers, and container ships
			Ships great and small
			Ballasting up
			Typical loads
			Moving the water around
			Speeds
			Counting metric tonnes
	§ 3.3.	The Great Lakes and Seaway System
			The Erie Canal
			The St. Lawrence Seaway
			The Great Lakes and Seaway maritime industry
			The third party salties
			The triangle trade
			Tonnage carried
			Paying for the Seaway
	§ 3.4.	Buying and renting ships
	§ 3.5.	The threat from ships: The biological island
			Ballast
			Hull fouling
			Marine sanitation devices (MSDs)
			Environmental benefits from shipping
	§ 3.6.	Ballast exchange: Making do and putting ships at risk
			The exchange requirement
			Defining "open ocean."
			Salinity
			The logic of exchange
			Effectiveness of the exchange regime
			The design of ballast tanks
			Breaking ships in half
			The infamous NOBOBs
			The effectiveness of exchange
			The bottom line
	§ 3.7.	Technical options for managing ballast water
			Open ocean exchange
			Filtering
			Ultraviolet light (UV)
			Biocides
			Heat
			Ultrasound
			Shoreside treatment
			Getting serious about the options
§ § 4.	Aquaculture: Teach them to grow a fish
	§ 4.1.	Profile of the aquaculture industry
	§ 4.2.	Aquaculture technology
	§ 4.3.	The supply and transportation of organisms
			Aquaculture diseases
	§ 4.4.	Genetic modification
§ 5.	Baitfish: The little fish that got away
§ 6.	Aquaria and ornamental ponds: Exotics for sale
§ 7.	Legal regimes for controlling ballast water: Acting locally and thinking globally
	§ 7.1.	Ten years of activity on ballast water: A quick review of the bidding
			The Great Lakes and the world
			Activity in other jurisdictions around the world
	§ 7.2.	California AB 703
	§ 7.3.	US NISA 96
			Comparing NISA 96 with other US pollution laws
			A mandate for delay
			A shell game over "safety."
			An 85% solution
	§ 7.4.	Canada Shipping Act
	§ 7.5.	MARPOL
§ 8.	Legal regimes for control of aquaculture, bait, and aquaria: Holes in the dike
	§ 8.1.	State and provincial laws in the Great Lakes
			Minnesota
	§ 8.2.	US and Canadian federal laws
			United States
			Canada
§ 9.	Binational regional coordination in the Great Lakes
§ 10.	Political economics: The use and misuse of economics, and the political realities of environmental regulation
	§ 10.1.	The value of fish and steel: Putting down your money and making your choices
			Putting a price tag on the environment
			Perception of risk
	§ 10.2.	All the action is on the margins: Some familiar economic fallacies
			Compensating a failing industry
			Passing the costs along
			The lowest common denominator
	§ 10.3.	The policy options: Command, Litigation, Markets, unintended consequences, and real solutions
			Non-regulatory and quasi-regulatory approaches
			Regulation through prohibitions, permits, and prescriptions
			Regulation through private rights and liabilities
			Regulation through market incentives
Appendix: Terms and Acronyms
Footnotes

This paper has been prepared as part of the International Joint Commission Workshop on "Exotic Policy" on September 23, 1999, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. The workshop and the white paper are cosponsored by the Great Lakes Fishery Commission and the Michigan Department of Environmental Quality Office of the Great Lakes (MDEQ OGL). Some of the research supporting the white paper was conducted as part of a project previously funded by MDEQ OGL. The author served for five years as a senior US Coast Guard staff officer responsible for oversight of Coast Guard environmental programs in the Great Lakes, including the Great Lakes regime for control of exotic species in ballast water. He has a JD and an MA in political science (and is about to begin doctoral studies in international affairs and environmental policy at Carleton University in Ottawa). His works on the subject of exotics include M. Eric Reeves, "Techniques for the Protection of the Great Lakes from Infection by Exotic Organisms in Ballast Water," in Frank M. D'Itri, ed., Zebra Mussels and Aquatic Nuisance Species (Chelsea, MI: Ann Arbor Press, 1997) 283-299, and Eric Reeves, Analysis of Laws & Policies Concerning Exotic Invasions of the Great Lakes, a report commissioned by MDEQ OGL (Lansing, MI: MDEQ OGL, March 15, 1999).

Significant assistance in the preparation of this paper was provided by Ms. Margaret Dochoda, a biologist on the staff of the Great Lakes Fishery Commission, who has published a number of papers on the subject of fisheries management in the Great Lakes, including Margaret Dochoda, "Meeting the Challenge of Exotics in the Great Lakes: The Role of an International Commission," Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (1991), vol. 48 (Supplement 1), pp. 171-176.

All opinions and errors are those of the author, and this paper does not constitute a policy statement of the IJC, the GLFC, or the MDEQ OGL. The purpose of this paper is to provide a basis for discussion.